Spatial risk assessment of Rift Valley Fever potential outbreaks using a vector surveillance system in Kenya

Nanyingi M , Ogola E,  Olang G, Otiang E,  Munyua P,  Thumbi S, Bett B, Muchemi G, Kiama S and Njenga K

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a vector-borne, viral, zoonotic disease that threatens human and animal health. In Kenya the geographical distribution is determined by spread of competent transmission vectors. Existing RVF predictive risk maps are devoid of vectors interactions with eco-climatic parameters in emergence of disease. We envisage to develop a vector surveillance system (VSS) by mapping the distribution of potential RVF competent vectors in Kenya; To evaluate the correlation between mosquito distribution and environmental-climatic attributes favoring emergence of RVF and investigate by modeling the climatic, ecological and environmental drivers of RVF outbreaks anddevelop a risk map for spatial prediction of RVF outbreaks in Kenya.

Using a cross-sectional design we classified Kenya into 30 spatial units/districts (15 case, 15 control for RVF) based on historical RVF outbreaks weighted probability indices for endemicity. Entomological and ecological surveillance using GPS mapping and monthly (May 2013- February 2014) trapping of mosquitoes is alternatively done in case and control areas. 2500 mosquitoes have been collected in 15 districts (50% geographical target for each for case and control). Species identified as (Culicines-86%, Anophelines-9.7%, Aedes- 2.6%) with over 65% distribution in RVF endemic areas. We demonstrate the applications of spatial epidemiology using GIS to illustrate RVF risk distribution and propose utilizing a Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) approach to develop Ecological Niche Models (ENM) for prediction of competent RVF vector distributions in un-sampled areas. Targeting RVF hotspots can minimize the costs of large-scale vector surveillance hence enhancing vaccination and vector control strategies. A replicable VSS database and methods can be used for risk analysis of other vector-borne diseases.

The Socio-Economics and Burden Impact of Rift Valley Fever in Garissa, Kenya

Nanyingi, M. O.,^1,3,5* Thumbi, S M.,^5,6 Muchemi, G. M. 1., Bett, B.,⁴ Kiama, S. G.² and Njenga, K.⁵

 

1 Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi PO BOX 29053S0065 Nairobi, Kenya.

2 Wangari Maathai Institute for Environmental Studies and Peace, University of Nairobi PO. BOX. 30197 Nairobi, Kenya.

3 Colorado State University, Feed The Future Programme, CO 80523S1644, USA.

4International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709 Nairobi 00100, Kenya.

5Kenya Medical Research Institute, US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Kenya.

6Paul G Allen Global Animal Health, PO Box 647090, Washington State University, Pullman WA, USA.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a viral, vector borne zoonosis that has significant threat to livestock health and production and public health in Africa. Recent outbreaks have led to high livestock mortalities and human morbidity and socio economic impacts in Garissa. To assess the level of knowledge of pastoralists to causation and transmission risk factors and describe their attitude and practices in response to RVF outbreaks and management in the context of climate change shocks. To estimate the livelihood losses and burden impacts in Garissa. A population based cross sectional household survey was conducted in March 2012 and March 2013 in four hotspots. A multistage purposive sampling was used to identify 250 participants who included pastoralists, veterinary and medical personnel and livestock traders. KAP evaluation was by questionnaires in depth key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Participatory rural appraisal tools were used to assess the economic significance of the RVF outbreaks, risk factors and management costs. 185 respondents (74%) had good knowledge of RVF (symptoms scored >50%) and risk factor analysis indicated > 150 (60%) understood the consumption of meat of dead or infected animal, milk, touching aborted foetuses caused disease. Estimated lost revenue due to closure of livestock markets and bans was over Ksh.3 billion. Intervention costs and burden of the outbreaks is discussed. There is good knowledge and attitude on RVF risk, transmission and control. It re-emergence is associated with negative impacts on livelihoods and economic endpoints in Garissa.

Keywords: Rift Valley Fever, Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices, Socioeconomics,

Garissa

Perspectives of Predictive Epidemiology and Early Warning Systems for Rift Valley Fever in Garissa, Kenya

 Nanyingi M O1,3, Muchemi G M1, Kiama S G2,Thumbi S M5,6 and Bett B4


1Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi PO BOX PO BOX 29053-0065 Nairobi, Kenya 2 Wangari Maathai Institute for Environmental Studies and Peace, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, University of Nairobi PO BOX 30197 Nairobi, Kenya 3 Colorado State University, Livestock-Climate Change Collaborative Research Support Program, CO 80523-1644,USA 4International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Naivasha Road, P.O. Box 30709 Nairobi 00100, Kenya 5Kenya Medical Research Institute, US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, PO Box 1578 Kisumu 6 Paul G Allen Global Animal Health, PO Box 647090, Washington State University, Pullman WA 99164-7090,509-335-2489

Abstract

Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is an arthropod-borne viral zoonosis with a potential global threat to domestic animals and humans. Climate variability is recognized as one of the major drivers contributing RVF epidemics and epizootics that have been closely linked to cyclic occurrence of the warm phase of the El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. Using retrospective reanalysis and cross sectional participatory approaches we evaluate the impacts of climate change on pastoral communities and outline their roles in community based early warning systems for RVF. We compare the spatiotemporal correlation of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and Rainfall Estimate Differences as surrogate predictors of RVF outbreaks in Garissa over the past decade. A bivariate regression model to provide a month-ahead lead-time for earlier prediction of RVF is described. We also explore the recent RVF outbreaks linkage to other environmental conditions using long-term sentinel data collected on the field. The results indicate a significant correlation between elevated rainfall and NDVI (> 0.43) anomalies with recent RVF epidemics (P < 0.5). Persistent elevated rainfall and NDVI suggest that there is a likelihood of another RVF outbreak due to enhance vector competence. Given the nearly linear relationship between rainfall and NDVI it is thus possible to utilize these factors to examine and predict spatially and temporally RVF epidemics for effective surveillance with limited resources. This small-scale focal study will contribute to various existing predictive tools and present a good opportunity for preparedness and mitigation of RVF by local, national and international organizations involved in the prevention and control of RVF.

Key words: Rift Valley Fever, Climate change; Early Warning Systems; Garissa

Rift Valley Fever Early Warning Systems for Pandemic preparedness in Kenya

Dr.Nanyingi M O

Interdecadal and interannual climate variability has led to emergence and reemergence of zoonoses in Kenya. Pastoralists and small holder farmers are mostly affected due to their higher vulnerability and poor adaptive capacity; predisposed by lack of accurate predictive warning systems. The Global Information and Early Warning and Information System (GLEWS), FAO Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES), Famine Early Warning System (FEWSNET) and Malaria Early Warning System (MEWS) are existing but inadequate databases that rely on seasonal weather forecasts, governments’ meteorological data and geospatial mapping repositories to predict pandemics of climate sensitive diseases (CSD). In Kenya the Department of Veterinary Services (DVS) under the Epidemiology communications Office has established a community based early warning (CBEWS) contingency plan to monitor the convergence of risk factors that predispose to Rift Valley Fever (RVF) outbreaks and effectively communicate to stakeholders for early response in a 3-5 month lead period. This is supported by non-governmental partners’; it involves the vulnerable communities, educational and research institutions. Some of the impediments in tackling CSD are lack of understanding of the drivers of climate change by local experts, dysfunctional communication channels, financial constraints, Ethno-religious barriers, trans-boundary conflicts, poor government policies and lack of human capacity and equipment in designing predictive tools. The prioritized beneficiaries of climate risk detection and prediction information systems are the pastoral and vulnerable communities; however this may be utilized by research institutions, government and donors for planning. Sustainable planning and decision making tools to support the development of appropriate climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies have been achieved by conducting community sensitization, awareness raising in schools, continuous training of veterinary, medical and public health personnel. The Kenya Meteorological Department in conjunction with DVS are working on rejuvenating information and dissemination EWS that targets end users like vernacular radio stations to confer a sense of ownership in the final results. We are investigating the Spatio-temporal distribution and burden analysis of RVF in Garissa, Northern Kenya; using model-based approaches in prediction of future outbreaks in response to climate change. We envisage employing participatory approaches and hotspots risk mapping in estimating the economic impacts on livelihoods and develop RVF -EWS for public preparedness. A Kenyan Zoonotic disease department has been specifically established for technical capacity building to standardize the management of emerging zoonoses including CSD. Quasi real-time syndromic and sentinel e- surveillance using mobile phones involving communities is in experimental phase in RVF monitoring. Our dissemination of geographic, statistical and meteorological data for vulnerability and early warning platforms is hinged on collaboration of regional animal and human health institutions in managing of existing and emerging diseases of veterinary and public health significance. We take therefore cognizance of a community based approach in early and timely detection of RVF is vital to veterinary, health authorities and policy-makers in immediate decision making. It contributes to an integrated climate risk assessment of livestock vulnerability analysis using climate dependent RVF model to develop predictive risk maps that will be crucial in current and future control plans of other climate sensitive diseases and possibly provide Early Warning Systems (EWS). The output will contribute to institutional contingency frameworks dealing with concepts and indicators of warning systems which will facilitate the early identification of potential climate sensitive epidemics and decision support systems

Climate Change Vulnerability, Adaptation and Mitigation of Livestock Systems in Kenya

Nanyingi M O,1,2,3, Kiama S G,1, Thumbi S M'4 and Muchemi G M,2 1 Wangari Maathai Institute for Environmental Studies and Peace, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, University of Nairobi PO BOX 30197 Nairobi, Kenya 2 Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi PO BOX 30197 Nairobi, Kenya 3 Colorado State University Fort Collins, Livestock‐Climate Change Collaborative Research Support Program, CO 80523‐ 1644,USA 4 Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Kings Buildings ,University of Edinburgh, , West Mains Road, EH9 6JT, City of Edinburgh,Scotland,UK In Kenya, global circulation models predict that, by the year 2100, climate change will increase temperatures by about 4°C leading to massive crop failure, reduced availability of forage and water, livestock mortality and loss of livelihoods. Consequently vast economic impacts are expected, because of higher vulnerability and the exceeding magnitude of future hazards to the adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities. Historically livestock keepers have developed adaptive measures that include traditional early warning systems, use of emergency fodders, multi‐species composition of herds and nomadic mobility to reduce their vulnerability. However, lack of understanding of the drivers of climate change due to inconsistent weather data remains a major challenge causing unreliable and inaccurate prediction of climate change patterns. It is important to identify replicable and cost effective mitigation activities to strengthen the adaptive capacities to climate change of affected communities. Here we review strategies to bridge the knowledge gap in understanding the present and future impacts of climate change on indigenous livestock production systems and options of adaptation to and climate change mitigation based on the indigenous knowledge. We propose a systematic methodology to study vulnerability in the context of multiple stressors and the potential for utilization of participatory mapping tools, geographic data and predictive models of infectious disease burden for anticipatory and reactive adaptive preparedness. The overall thrust of the review is to improve the ability of vulnerable people and their livestock to be more resilient to current climate variability and their decision‐making to climate change. Key words: Climate change; Livestock; Adaptation; Kenya

Towards a Climate Change database for livestock adaptation and mitigation in Kenya

The Kenyan rural communities face a myriad of challenges including poverty, food security, scarcity of water, and challenges emerging due to global warming and climate change. Notable direct effects include higher temperatures and drastic changes in rainfall patterns, consequently aberrant transmission models, and increased spread of existing vector-borne diseases, emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases. Major challenges for adaptation interventions in Kenya include insufficient local level historic and future climate change information. Given the complexity of livestock and crop-livestock systems, a mix of technological, policy and institutional innovations will inevitably be required. Here we propose approaches that can be used to develop reliable climate databases and to incorporate these data into predictive risk models. We hypothesize that techniques should be further refined to produce detailed relational databases. The proposed climate system models are to provide insights on climate variability and impacts on livestock, they are designated as problem-solving tools that allow users to process and analyse climate data in a multidisciplinary context. They should be ideal for storage, archiving, display, analysis and interpretation of the localised impacts, and the importance of identifying appropriate options that can help livestock keepers adapt to climate change. However we reckon the overarching issues of shrinking government budgets, curriculum suitability and need for collaboration to expand our knowledge of how climate change and increasing climate variability will affect livestock systems and the livelihoods of the people who depend on them.

Syndromic Early Warning Surveillance Networks in Kenya

Early detection is key to controlling disease outbreaks in the developing countries. In Kenya a small scale surveillance system is being established by a local network known as Khwisero Animal Health Surveillance Network (KAHSN), In Kakamega County of Western Kenya, KAHSN draws on the disease detection capabilities of practicing veterinarians, district and regional diagnostic laboratories and the national government.

The KAHSN bolsters Khwisero’s domestic early warning surveillance capacity for detecting new and emerging diseases of animals that could affect animal health, the food supply or public health. It brings together animal disease surveillance information from many sources - veterinary practitioners, veterinary diagnostic laboratories and animal health agencies - so that baselines can be established and trends identified. By amalgamating information gathered from surveys, syndromic surveillance and rumour reports from the field, tracking the on-going animal health status of the country will be improved.

The identification of aberrant trends of disease outbreaks prompts further investigation and assessment of situations. Since early detection is key to early control of any disease outbreak, the KAHSN is an important component of Kenyas’ defense against serious threats to animal and human health.

Animal disease surveillance supports Kenyas’ ability to recognize and deal with emerging animal disease problems. Surveillance also plays an import role in providing Kenyan livestock and poultry products access to more markets. Major notifiable diseases of livestock are routinely monitored and outbreaks reported in a established but laborious, if not erratic system.
Avian influenza (H1N1) is of major focus and its invariably undetected due to inadequate surveillance personell and laboratory facilities in the marginalized and rural areas. A collaboration between the Veterinary offices and regional research laboratories would enhance the detection and reporting of this(H1N1) and other Zoonotic infections.

The Khwisero District Veterinary Office is establishing a small scale model “Khwisero Animal Health Surveillance Network (KAHSN)” ; its collaborative network of animal health surveillance and diagnostic system to improve the capacity to detect emerging animal disease threats in real time. The KAHSN focuses particularly on those animal disease threats that could have zoonotic potential and provide a rapid response to minimize the human health and economic risks to Khwisero District.

The KAHSN combines surveillance data received from many sources and simultaneously alerts both human and animal health authorities in other jurisdictions within Western Kenya when potential animal disease threats are identified.

The key outputs of the KAHSN are:
• An early warning system for animal disease threats to the food supply, food safety or public health;
• A regional laboratory network for the rapid diagnosis of serious infectious animal diseases; and
• An information-sharing network linking national and international research agencies and departments of animal and human health

Features of the KAHSN
The model is set on open source softwares that enable suite of to collect, aggregate and visualize data, Mainly Open data Kit (ODK), will be utilised to aggreagate GIS data and mobile phone devices with The Android Emulators SDK, these successfuly ran a realtime data collection and synchronization to local internet servers. The use of interactive risk maps will enable faster emergency reactions in suspected outbreaks.

KAHSN will collaborate with the Khwisero Network for Public Health Intelligence (KNPHI) to establish rapid communication and identification of emerging animal and human disease issues. This newly established network increases the surge capacity of regional laboratories to rapidly diagnose serious and infectious animal diseases. By combining their diagnostic surge capacities with those of provincial and university laboratories that have diagnostic capabilities for foreign animal disease, the response to an outbreak is being enhanced. This establishes interoperability between laboratories by using common protocols and reagents. It also allows technical and scientific staff to exchange, participate in and share expertise.

Early detection of Zoonotic diseases by Syndromic Surveillance Networks (KAHSN)

Syndromic Surveillance Networks in Early detection of Zoonotic diseases

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Impact of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures on Kenya in Global Trade

Dr. Nanyingi M.O

In the recent years the international trade arena has witnessed the growing importance of “within the border” barriers. Standards and technical regulations are the new critical issue on the international trade agenda. Among these, sanitary and phytosanitary measures occupy a special place because of their crucial aim: safeguard of health and safety of human beings in accordance with the WHO. From the point of view of economic efficiency there are very few circumstances in which it can be accepted a departure from free trade. Sanitary and phytosanitary measures pose a fundamental challenge to this traditional “economic perspective”. This study attempts to disentangle the complexity of sanitary and phytosanitary measures that, uniquely amongst “potential trade obstacles”, in Kenya mix elements of genuine protection and elements of disguised protectionism.


There is need to exemplify the crucial elements that characterize regulations in general and SPS measures, a synthetic overview of the institutional framework set by the WTO’s SPS agreement in order to situate the issue of SPS in its concrete settings outlining the set of rules that bind their use. Understanding the difficulties posed to “economic analysis” by domestic regulations are tackled and a potential solution will be deliberated making use of a partial equilibrium economic model for evaluating the impact of SPS measures.

The main objective is demonstrate the complexity that traditional economic reasoning do have when tackling the relationships between regulations-standards and international trade. A simulation to present an econometric method to measure the effect of standards and domestic regulations on trade flows taking as example the aflatoxins standards and trade in food between Kenya and EU. This is a direct attempt to tackle the problem of empirically “quantifying” the impact of some specific domestic standards on international exchange, which is clearly a first step towards the objective of evaluating the trade-off posed by the introduction of standards. In conclusion the limits of economic “output based” rationality and the need for integrating it with legal “procedure based” rationality when evaluating SPS measures in Kenya will be discussed.

Key words: Kenya, Trade barriers, SPS.

Zoonoses - Success, challenges and possibilities

Background

Khwisero District Veterinary Office continues to enhance its outreach in cross-platform and multidisciplinary efforts for improved Veterinary Public health and Clinical service delivery. it will publish a regular quarterly electronic Newsletter on a list-serve basis temporarily,(as the website is under construction) to keep a regional and global up-date with developments in veterinary practice and other news and features that might benefit to global communities in the veterinary industry.

In this publication we focus on Zoonosis by outlining the Challenges, Successes and possible improvements that can be achieved with coordinated collaborative linkages between mainstream government departments, paraprofessionals and research institutes

Progress

Disease control: Pests and Vectors can be effectively managed by establishment of community dips.Rehabilitation of community dips can enhance effective disease control.

Epidemiology: An Epidemio-surveillance system (ESS) has been established enhancing detection and reporting of notifiable diseases in partnership with paraprofessionals.

Phytosanitary department: The Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures according to World Trade Organization have been implemented in order to protect human and animal health. Meat inspectorate services have improved consumption leading to a 75% revenue increment with a 27% decline in condemnation.

Collaborative Linkages: Establishment of Khwisero Animal /Public Health Surveillance Network (KAHSN) to share information across districts and provinces for coordinated human/animal health databases for zoonotic infections.

Challenges: Knowledge gap on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS), legislation and regularization of private practitioners combined with imprudent drug dispensation has a significant negative impact on clinical services (67%). Workforce deprivation and Staff demotivation can lead to suboptimal discharge of duties at 30% (p<0.001). Insufficient funding (-60%) continues to be a major a contributor to poor service delivery.


Possibilities: New approaches for the efficient and cost-effective delivery of reliable and accurate information to users in rural areas are required. Staff recruitment, training and motivation will foster service delivery. Establishment of regional laboratories to provide accurate diagnosis is essential for field research. A requisite combination of epidemiological and economic tools must be underpinned by detailed knowledge of livestock disease patterns for public-policy formulations in effective Veterinary Public health systems.

The Role of Veterinary Medicine in Public Health; The Khwisero example

The role of VPH within the global health agenda is to promote activities that contribute to the achievement of health for all and help realize its objectives. Veterinarians assist in planning, policy-setting, allocating resources, and providing technical guidance, orientation, and support to the operational staff.

Public health is dependent on animal health in rural area because poor animal health directly affects the human food supply. New information and new approaches for the efficient and cost-effective delivery of reliable and accurate information to VPH users in these areas are required.


VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH IN KHWISERO, KENYA; SUCCESS,CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES.

Mark Nanyingi1§, Alfred Koballa 1, Humphrey Ongili1, Christopher Okello1, Tindi Bushuru 2, Kelly Nelima3

1Ministry of Livestock and Development, District Veterinary Office, PO BOX 60 -50135, Khwisero, Kenya
2Ministry of Livestock and Development, District Veterinary Office, PO BOX 1160, Butere, Kenya
3Ministry of Livestock and Development, Provincial Veterinary Office, PO BOX 871, Kakamega, Kenya

Abstract

Background
Public health is dependent on animal health in rural areas because poor animal health directly affects the human food supply. Veterinary public health entails the diagnosis, surveillance, epidemiology, control, prevention and elimination of Zoonoses. Unsatisfactory implementation of stringent disease control, meat inspectorate and drug dispensation legislations prevents the efficient production of food of animal origin; creating obstacles to international trade in animals and animal products and hence an impediment to overall socioeconomic development.

Methods

Data were extracted from the Khwisero veterinary relational database including clinical, meat inspectorate, disease surveillance, and extension from October 2009 to March 2010. Participatory approaches were used to collect data from private service providers and stakeholders concerning the status of veterinary service delivery. A qualitative and quantitative analysis was conducted to determine the challenges, incentives, cost-effectiveness and policies that would improve veterinary public health.

Results

An Epidemio-surveillance system (ESS) has been established enhancing detection and reporting of notifiable diseases in partnership with paraprofessionals. Meat inspectorate services improved consumption leading to a 75% revenue increment with a 27% decline in condemnation. Knowledge gap on legislation and regularization of private practitioners was combined with imprudent drug dispensation and home use had a significant negative impact on clinical services (67%). Workforce deprivation and Staff demotivation leads to suboptimal discharge of duties at 30% (p<0.001). Insufficient funding (-60%) was a contributor to poor service delivery.

Conclusions

New information and approaches for the efficient and cost-effective delivery of reliable and accurate information to VPH users in rural areas are required. Staff recruitment, training and motivation will foster service delivery. Establishment of regional laboratories to provide accurate diagnosis is essential for field research. A requisite combination of epidemiological, statistical and economic tools must be underpinned by detailed knowledge of livestock disease patterns for public-policy formulations in effective Veterinary Public health systems.

Key words: Veterinary Public Health, Khwisero, Zoonoses.

© 2010 Khwisero District Veterinary Office

Spatio-temporal epidemiology of dog bite injuries at Kakamega Provincial Hospital, Kenya

Spatial epidemiology is the study of spatial variation in disease risk or incidence. Several ecological processes can result in strong spatial patterns of such risk or incidence: for example, pathogen dispersal might be highly localized, vectors or reservoirs for pathogens might be spatially restricted, or susceptible hosts might be clumped.(Ostefield et al 2005).

In Kakamega District of Western Kenya We Assesed The Reporting patterns of Vertebrate bites in the Provinicial Referral General Hospital.

Spatio-temporal epidemiology of dog bite injuries at Kakamega Provincial Hospital, Kenya

Kelly A Nelima1, 6, Mark OO Nanyingi 2, 3§, Gideon M. Kikuvi4, Willis Akhwale5, Jared Omolo6
1Ministry of Livestock and Development, Provincial Veterinary Office, PO BOX 871, Kakamega, Kenya
2 Ministry of Livestock and Development, District Veterinary Office, PO BOX 60 -50135, Khwisero, Kenya,
3 Kenya Scientific Analysts, P.O. Box 531-00202, Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya,
4Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Box 3249-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
5 Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation, PO Box 30016- 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
6 Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program, US centers for Disease Control, PO Box Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

Background
Endemic canine rabies is a reemerging neglected zoonosis often underestimated in Kenya but remains a public health and economic burden to the rural poor. Understanding the transmission dynamics and distribution of dog bites over specified time period can assist in assessment of risk factors, design of interventions to exposure and the estimation of rabies burden.

Methods
Retrospective and cross-sectional analysis of surveillance data of reported dog bite incidents from Kakamega Provincial General Hospital from 2006 to 2009 was performed to estimate the prevalence of dog bites. Univariate and Multivariate analysis were performed to assess the risk factors and prevalence of dog bites. The temporal distribution and spatial patterns of bites was mapped and analysed to estimate population at risk to rabies.

Results
There were 148 dog bite incidents with children below 10years being more involved (33.8%).Most bites occurred on the lower extremities 124/148 (83.8. 1.0% of bites resulted in rabies and death after post exposure treatment and were located more than 45km away from the PGH. Spatial-temporal clustering of dog bites showed irregular pattern of spread with declining incidence rates from the periurban center. On visual inspection, the highest (30%, 95% CI 14-52% N = 45) densities of dog bites were in areas around the central place of the study area, bites clustered in not more than 15km radius from the hospital. The second cluster centered around Lubao dog market 7.4 %( 95% CI, 5-12%, N = 11). 12% of the bites were along roads and rivers while 5% occurred in and around forests. The retrospective analysis revealed a temporal increase in prevalence 114 % (P<0.05) with high peaks in March and August with a mean monthly bite incidence of 22.44%. 2008 had the highest mean monthly incidence of 30%.

Conclusions
Spatiotemporally dynamic approaches and epidemiological models may predict emergence or spread of diseases to new geographic regions and could be effective in spatially targeting interventions. Descriptive spatial epidemiology of bites can assist in accurate measure of rabies burden where underreporting, inequity in vaccine provision and improper policies of disease mitigation exist.

Key words: Spatial epidemiology; Dog bites, Rabies.

© 2010 Khwisero District Veterinary Office

§Corresponding author and presenter: mnanyingi@gmail.com, +254721117845.

Potential of African Medicinal Plants in Malaria Therapy

Nanyingi et al 2010. Aspects of African Biodiversity, ISBN:1847559484, 9781847559487

ABSTRACT

Malaria is one of the most prevalent diseases in the world and a major public health problem, affecting 40% of the world population. It infects about half a billion people causing about 3 million deaths a year with 90 % of them being in sub-Saharan Africa.1,2 In Kenya, malaria is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality, accounting for 30-50% of all outpatient attendance and 20% of all admissions to health facilities.

Kenya has revised its treatment policy by adopting artemisinin combination therapy (ACT) as the first line drugs for treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains of Plasmodium and the adverse side effects of the existing antimalarial drugs have necessitated the search for novel, well tolerated and more efficient antimalarial drugs.3 Indigenous plants are important sources of biologically active compounds and have potential for the development of novel antimalarial drugs.

Drug-resistant strains of P. falciparum are endemic in many areas of the world and the majority of conventional antimalarial drugs have been associated with treatment failure. These developments and the difficulty of creating efficient vaccines, coupled with adverse reactions to chemotherapy, underline the urgent need for novel, cheap, safe and efficacious antimalarial drugs.8 It is estimated that 80% of people worldwide use herbal remedies, due to limited access to modern medicine because of low income and the shortage of efficient health care facilities.9 There is a dearth of evidence on the efficacy and safety of these remedies, despite the fact that validation of traditional practices could lead to innovative strategies in malaria control.

Read more http://www.rsc.org/shop/books/2009/9781847559487.asp

Screening of some kenyan medicinal plants for antibacterial activity

Phytother Res. 2009 Jun 22

Wagate CG, Mbaria JM, Gakuya DW, Nanyingi MO, Kareru PG, Njuguna A, Gitahi N, Macharia JK, Njonge FK.

Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya.

Eleven medicinal plants used by traditional healers in Machakos and Kitui District were screened, namely: Ajuga remota Benth, Aloe secundiflora Engl, Amaranthus hybridus L, Cassia didymobotrya Fes, Croton macrostachyus Del, Entada leptostachya Harms, Erythrina abyssinica DC, Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv, Schkuhria pinnata O. Ktze, Terminalia kilimandscharica Engl and Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst for potential antibacterial activity against four medically important bacterial strains, namely: Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Micrococcus lutea ATCC 9341 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853. The antibacterial activity of methanol extracts was determined as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). The plant extracts were more active against Gram-positive (G+) than Gram-negative (G-) bacteria. The positive controls were streptomycin and benzylpenicillin for G- and G+ bacteria, respectively, both had a significant MIC at <1 mg/mL. The most susceptible bacteria were B. cereus, followed by M. lutea, while the most resistant bacteria were Ps. aeruginosa, followed by E. coli. The present study supports the use of these plants by the herbalists in the management of bacterial ailments. H. abyssinica and T. kilimandscharica showed the best antibacterial activity; hence these plants can be further subjected to phytochemical and pharmacological evaluation

Kenya Scientific Analysts

Background Information

Kenya Scientific Analysts (KSA) is a non-profit, organization committed to conducting high quality and policy-relevant scientific consultation.
KSA was established in 2006 with its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya and satellite offices in Mombasa and Busia, Kenya.

Evolution
KSA was formerly known as Kenya Data Analysts (KDA) before expansion of its activities. KSA is registered with the Registrar of Companies in Kenya, giving it distinct legal status in the country.

Objectives
KSA has a wider aim to reach establish collaboration with reputable research institutes, individual researchers, doctoral students and other post graduates in undertaking relevant scientific research.
It has specific objectives:
 Contribute to Science through high impact research projects and publications.
 Provision of evidence based research finding to policy makers.

Research Focus
KSA research focuses on improving understanding of Epidemiology and Public Health of tropical and infectious diseases through development and implementation of innovative, policy-oriented research programs to address the health challenges. KSA particularly focuses on areas where there are considerable knowledge gaps.
Our methods include primary research projects where we collect new data; secondary analysis of existing data; synthesis of evidence; scenario building; and monitoring and evaluation of interventions. We also seek to develop and use new methodologies, partnering with other institutions as needed.

Collaborators

 Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi
 International Livestock Research Institute
 University of Nairobi, Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology
 University of Nairobi, Department of Chemistry
 Great Lakes University, Kisumu.
 African Medical Research Institute.
 Maseno University.
 Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
 Victoria Institute of Science and Technology

A Survey of Bovine Cysticercosis / Human Taeniosis in Northern Turkana District, Kenya

PREVENTIVE VETERINARY MEDICINE MARCH 2009
Lucas L Asaava, BVM; Philip M kitala, BVM., MSc., PhD; Peter B Gathura,
BVM.,MSc.,PhD; Mark O Nanyingi, BVM.,MSc; Gerald M Muchemi, BVM.,MSc.,PhD; Esther
Schelling , DVM, PhD

ABSTRACT
Bovine cysticercosis is a zoonosis that is mainly of socioeconomic and public health importance. A survey of this disease was carried out in northern Turkana District, Kenya to estimate the prevalence through both serology and meat inspection, to determine the prevalence of the adult tapeworm in the human definitive host, and to determine risk factors for cattle seropositivity. This information is of public health importance and will be of use in assessing economic losses due to down grading, refridgeration or condemnation of infested carcasses.The study area was stratified into the three livestock grazing regions of Oropoi to the south,
Lokichoggio-Mogilla centrally and Kibish in the north for the purposes of the serological and questionnaire (n=53 herd owners) data. Five adakaars (grazing units) were selected and 34, 63, 49, 75, and 571 cattle serum samples obtained from these. The slaughter slabs of Lokichoggio and Kakuma were visited and 188 serum samples were obtained from slaughter cattle and compared to results of meat inspection. Human stool samples were collected in each of the three grazing areas
and 66, 97,and 78 samples were obtained. The seroprevalence of cysticercosis in cattle was estimated at 16.7% (95%CI 13%-20.9%) using a secretory-excretory antigen detection ELISA. There was poor agreement between meat inspection and serology (k = 0.025; P=0.2797). The prevalence of taeniosis was estimated as 2.5% (95%CI
0.8%-5.6%) by microscopy. A backwards elimination logistic regression analysis indicated that the grazing unit (Adakaar), the deworming history of household members and the distance (>2km) of grazing fields from the homestead were significant explanatory variables for cattle being found to be positive on serology.
An intra-cluster correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.07 (0.02 - 0.12); p<0.0001 was calculated for bovine cysticercosis in this area.

Keywords: Cattle-Cestoda; Taenia saginata; ELISA; Epidemiology-cestoda; Kenya-Turkana

Victoria institute of Science and Technology

Many antipoverty crusaders believe that closing the Digital Divide is not a top priority, arguing instead that the poor need clean water,good roads, electricity and jobs before they need computers. However, what they do not realize is that access to digital technology greatly enhances the effectiveness and affordability of efforts to improve the water supply, improve rural health and education, generate jobs and address any of the other interrelated problems of poverty. Closing the digital divide is not a silver bullet for reducing poverty. But there is a much lower likelihood of large scale and sustainable poverty reduction without doing so.
The emerging market countries of Asia are now major drivers of the digital economy and, in that vast region, the spread of wireless networks is stimulating all other dimensions of economic growth. In fact, the biggest technological growth is occurring outside big cities in these countries. As broadband networks spread into the countryside in Kenya, costs throughout the supply chain will drop. By adjusting their policies to close the digital divide, the major IT and telecom companies are achieving innovations that could spur growth in the advanced countries as well.
one prototype initiative is by a kenyan Harvard professor. Calestous Juma from the shores of Lake victoria in Budalangi. Calestous Juma is Professor of the Practice of International Development and the Director of the Science, Technology and Globalization Project at the Harvard Kennedy School He volunteers as a member of the International Advisory Council of World Computer Exchange (WCE).Professor Juma is now contacting his friends and colleagues to explore if they might be willing to join him in financially Sponsoring part of the $30,000 for content materials, sourcing the computers and other items as well as the logistical and shipping costs.
Victoria Institute of Science and Technology (VIST)will be key in bridging the digital divide and improve livelihoods of the rural communities of Bunyala Distirct in Kenya.

Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Kenyan medicinal plants

Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of Kenyan medicinal plants

Wagate G Cyrus, Gakuya W Daniel, Mark O Nanyingi, Francis K Njonge, James M Mbaria

Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology 1Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University
of Nairobi, PO Box 29053, 00625 Nairobi, Kenya 2Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology,
Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract
Seven medicinal plant extracts traditionally used in Kenya, mainly for management of infectious conditions, were chosen and screened for their antibacterial activity against Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. Antibacterial activity was tested using the broth dilution method. Harrisonia abyssinica and Terminalia kilimandscharica extracts showed significant activity against Gram+ and Gram- bacteria. The methanolic extracts of T. kilimandscharica bark and H. abyssinica bark and leaves showed minimum inhibitory activity against all tested bacteria, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 25-150 mg/mL. Ajuga remota and Amaranthus hybridus, which are lethal to brine shrimp nauplii,
showed significantly lower antibacterial activity than those that were relatively non-toxic.

Key words: antibacterial - cytotoxicity - medicinal plants

link www.scielo.br/pdf/mioc/v103n7/04.pdf

6th Biennial Scientific Conference and Exhibition

Acaricidal activity of Psiadia punctulata (Compositae) against Boophilus decolaratus and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (Acari: ixodidae)

Mark O. Nanyingi1,*, James M. Mbaria1, Cyrus G. Wagate1, Stephen Mwaura2 ,Adamson L. Lanyasunya3 , Kipsengeret B. Koros1,5 , Jacob O. Midiwo4 , William O. Ogara1

1Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya
2International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
3Samburu Integrated Resource Aids Network P.O Box 26, Maralal, Kenya
4Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya
5 Center for Public Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 54840, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Abstract

Psiadia punctulata (Compositae) is an endemic plant species used for medicinal purposes in Samburu District. Previous studies revealed the presence of flavonoids, diterpenes and phenylpropenoids compounds that possess insecticidal properties. This study reports the larvicidal activity of crude methanol extract (CME) of the aerial parts of this plant on cattle ticks Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Boophilus decoloratus. A stock solution of 5000 ppm was prepared by dissolving the ME in two parts trichloroethylene (TCE) and one part olive oil. The respective tick larvae were separately exposed to filter papers impregnated with different concentrations of the CME in triplicates. Thirty larvae of both species ranging 14-21 days old were fasted and enclosed in the envelopes. In vitro Larval packet Test (LPT) was conducted at 27-28°C and 90-95% RH for 24 h at 12:12 hour photoperiod. Larval mortality was observed after 48 hours. Triplicates for each concentration of the ME against individual larvae were evaluated to determine the lethal concentrations. The CME was larvicidal at LC50 (3.918mg/ml) and LC99 (8.771mg/ml) on R. appendiculatus and LC50 (1.857mg/ml) and LC99 (8.347mg/ml) B. decoloratus, respectively. The potential tick control use of this extracts is discussed. The plant extract possess potential novel acaricidal compounds.


Keywords: Psiadia punctulata; acaricidal; Tick control; Rhipicephalus appendiculatus; Boophilus decoloratus